Results
Search Results
The searches yielded 41,928 results, of which 24,023 were removed as duplicates. After screening titles and abstracts, we assessed 1,964 full-texts for inclusion. One hundred and nineteen met the inclusion criteria and we extracted the data of these studies. Figure 1 presents the full results of the study selection process.
Figure 1: PRISMA Diagram
After extracting data, we examined the combinations of exposure and outcomes and removed any effects that appeared more than once, keeping the effect with the largest total sample size. This process yielded 140 unique effects/outcome combinations contributed from 65 papers. The most frequently reported exposures were general tv programs and movies (n = 20), lifestyle risk behaviour (at school) intervention (n = 12), physically active video games (n = 12), and general screen use (n = 9). The most frequently reported outcomes were body composition (n = 31), general literacy (n = 11), general physical activity (n = 10), and general learning (n = 9). In most cases (120/169), there was only one exposure/outcome combination, with 17 appearing twice, and 3 three or more times. Full characteristics of the included studies are provided in Table X.
Study Quality
The quality of the included studies was mixed. Most studies assessed heterogeneity (n = 98), reported the characteristics of the included studies (n = 96), and used a comprehensive and systematic search strategy (n = 93). Most studies did not clearly report if their eligibility criteria was predefined (n unclear = 81). Many studies also did not complete dual independent screening of abstracts and full text (n = 35) or did not clearly report the method of screening (n = 36). A similar trend was observed for dual independent quality assessment (n high = 57; n unclear = 31). Overall, only 7 studies were graded as low on all criteria.
Education Outcomes
There were 43 unique effects with education outcomes, including general learning outcomes, literacy, numeracy, and science (see Figure X). Of these, 12 met our criteria for robust evidence. General screen use, TV viewing, and video games were all negatively associated with academic performance, and general screen use was further negatively associated with general learning and general literacy outcomes. Conversely, numeracy focused video games and screen-based interventions which target mathematics were positively associated with numeracy outcomes. There was substantial evidence to suggest that general screen time that occurred with an adult (i.e., coviewing) and education television are not associated with literacy outcomes (i.e., were not significantly different from zero). It is notable that of these results, heterogeneity was high for all except for the video games and academic achievement association.
Health Behaviour Outcomes
We identified 45 unique health outcome exposure combinations, which were further grouped into diet, healthy behaviour, physical activity, risky behaviour, screen time, and sleep. See Figure X for all combinations of exposure and outcome. five effects met the criteria for certainty. Advertising of unhealthy foods—both traditional advertising and video games developed by a brand for promotion—were associated higher food intake. Social media use was also associated with higher risk of substance abuse, while screen-based interventions which target health behaviours appear effective. Television was negatively correlated with sleep duration, but only at the 95% confidence level, and was not statistically significant at our more stringent 99.9% confidence level. As with the education outcomes, there was substantial unexplained heterogeneity around the findings.
Physical Health
There were 18 unique effects identified for physical health, but only five met the criteria for certainty. General screen use, television viewing, and video games were all detrimentally associated with body composition, although all also had high levels of heterogeneity. None of the effects in the other categories—cardiometabolic health, eye health, and other physical health—met our criteria for certainty.
Psychology
We identified 34 unique effects which were categorised as psychological outcomes, with six meeting the criteria for certainty. General screen use was associated with a small increased risk of depression. Social media use was associated with greater risk taking, and with higher instances of safe sex. Viewing of sexy media was associated with high sexual activity and with higher initiation of sex. All of these effects had substantial heterogeneity.
Review Characteristics
Interactive
|
Review Characteristics
|
Quality Assessment
|
||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First Author | Year | Design Restrictions | Regions Restrictions | Earliest Study Year | Latest Study Year | Sample Ages | Outcomes Assessed | Exposures Assessed | Eligibility Criteria Predefined And Specified | Literature Search Strategy Comprehensive And Systematic | Dual Independent Screening Review | Dual Independent Quality Assessment | Included Studies Listed With Important Characteristics And Results Of Each | Publication Bias Assessed | Heterogeneity Assessed |
| Anderson | 2010 | None | None Specified | NA | NA | All |
|
|
Unclear | Low | High | Low | High | Low | Low |
| Bartel | 2015 | None | All | 2004 | 2014 |
adolescents (12.2—17.7) |
|
|
Low | Low | Unclear | Unclear | Low | Unclear | Unclear |
| Boyland | 2016 | Include: Experimental | None Specified | 2004 | 2015 |
Children, Adolescents (6.0—10.4) |
|
|
High | Low | Low | Unclear | Low | Low | Low |
| Carter | 2016 | Include: All quantitative designs | None specified | 2011 | 2015 |
Children, Adolescents (10.6—17.0) |
|
|
Low | Low | Unclear | Low | Low | High | Low |
| Ferguson | 2017 | None | None Specified | 2005 | 2017 | Children, Adolescents |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Fischer | 2011 | None | None Specified | 1985 | 2010 | Children, Adolescents |
|
|
Low | Low | Unclear | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Hammersley | 2016 | Include: RCT_general | None Specified | 2003 | 2013 | Children, Adolescents |
|
|
Low | Low | High | Low | Low | High | Low |
| Lee | 2016 | None | None Specified | NA | NA | School-age_Primary/Elementary School |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | High | High | High | High |
| Liao | 2014 | Include: RCT_no treatment control | None Specified | 1999 | 2012 |
Children, Adolescents (4.0—14.7) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | High | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Marshall | 2004 | None | None Specified | 1985 | 2002 | Children, Adolescents |
|
|
Unclear | Low | High | High | High | High | Low |
| Strong | 2011 | Include: RCT_general; quasi-experimental | None Specified | 2004 | 2009 |
All (6.0—12.5) |
|
|
Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | High | High |
| van Grieken | 2012 |
Include: Experimental Exclude: a design with no control group |
None Specified | 1999 | 2010 |
Children, Adolescents (1.9—18.2) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | Low | Low | High | Low |
| Wahi | 2011 | Include: RCT_general | None Specified | 1995 | 2010 |
All (3.9—11.7) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | High | Low | High | Low |
| Tremblay | 2011 | Include: All quantitative designs | None Specified | NA | NA | Children, Adolescents |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | Unclear | Low | Low | Low |
| Luckner | 2012 | Include: RCT_general; quasi-experimental | Western countries | 1999 | 2008 | All |
|
|
Unclear | Low | High | High | Low | Low | Low |
| McArthur | 2012 | Include: RCT_general; quasi-experimental | None Specified | 1994 | 2009 |
All (6.7—16.2) |
|
|
Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Nikkelen | 2014 | none specified | none specified | 1978 | 2014 |
Children; Adolescents (1.5—15.3) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | High | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Bochner | 2015 | Include: RCT_general | None Specified | 2008 | 2013 | Children, Adolescents |
|
|
Unclear | Low | High | High | Low | High | Low |
| Ferguson | 2015 | None | None Specified | 1987 | 2013 |
Children, Adolescents (5.5—17.2) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Unclear | Unclear | High | Low | Low |
| Gao | 2015 | Include: Within subject design; between subject design | None Specified | 2006 | 2014 |
Children, Adolescents (7.5—15.1) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | Low | High | High | High |
| Liu | 2016 | Include: cross-sectional; case-control; longitudinal | None Specified | 2001 | 2014 |
All (10.9—18.0) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | Unclear | Low | Low | Low |
| de Oliveira | 2016 | Include: observational | None Specified | 2010 | 2014 | Adolescents |
|
|
Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Zhang | 2016 | Include: cohort; case-control; cross-sectional | None Specified | 2001 | 2014 | Children |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Fedele | 2017 | Include: All quantitative designs | None Specified | 2006 | 2016 |
Children, Adolescents (8.7—18.0) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | High | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Mares | 2013 | Exclude: experimental | Not North America_USA | 1973 | 2010 | Children |
|
|
Unclear | High | High | High | Low | High | Low |
| Mares | 2005 | None | None Specified | 1969 | 1989 | children |
|
|
Unclear | Low | High | High | Low | High | High |
| van Ekris | 2016 | Include: Prospective design | all | 2005 | 2015 |
School-age_general (2.0—16.3) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | Low | Low | High | Low |
| Chodura | 2015 | Include: pretest–posttest with control group | None Specified | 1990 | 2012 | School-age_Primary/Elementary School |
|
|
Unclear | Low | High | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Kroesbergen | 2003 | Include: within subject design; between subject design | None Specified | 1985 | 1999 |
School-age_Primary/Elementary School (7.0—11.3) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Unclear | High | Low | High | Low |
| Pearce | 2016 | All quantiative designs | None Specified | 1986 | 2012 | Children, Adolescents |
|
|
Unclear | Low | High | High | High | Low | Low |
| Peng | 2011 | None | All | 2001 | 2010 | children, adolescents |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Unclear | Unclear | Low | High | Low |
| Sadeghirad | 2016 | Include: RCT_general | All | 1978 | 2014 |
Children, Adolescents (3.8—11.0) |
|
|
High | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Steele | 2016 | include: experimental; single case | None Specified | 2009 | 2012 |
Incarcerated Juveniles (16.3—16.3) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | High | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Takacs | 2014 | Include: Experimental; quasi-experimental | All | 1980 | 2014 | NA |
|
|
High | Low | Unclear | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Takacs | 2015 | Include: Experimental; quasi-experimental | None Specified | 1980 | 2014 |
Early childhood/pre-school, School-age_Primary/Elementary School (3.0—10.0) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | High | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Weng | 2014 | None | None Specified | 1981 | 2013 | All |
|
|
Unclear | Low | High | High | Low | High | Low |
| Wood | 1991 | Include: RCT_general | None Specified | 1956 | 1988 | Children, adolescents |
|
|
Low | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear | Low | High | Low |
| Zucker | 2009 | Include: RCT_general; quasi-experimental; observational | None Specified | 1997 | 2006 | School-age_Primary/Elementary School |
|
|
Low | Low | Unclear | High | Low | High | Low |
| Barnett | 2011 | None | None Specified | 2006 | 2009 |
All (9.7—15.1) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Unclear | Unclear | Low | High | Low |
| Williams | 1982 | None | None Specified | 1954 | 1980 |
School-age_general (5.0—17.0) |
|
|
Unclear | Unclear | High | Unclear | Low | High | High |
| Gardella | 2017 | Include: cross-sectional, quantatitive | North America_USA | 2006 | 2014 |
Adolescents (12.5—16.2) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | Unclear | Low | Low | Low |
| Tingir | 2017 | Include: Experimental; quasi-experimental | All | 2010 | 2014 | School-age_general |
|
|
High | High | Low | Unclear | Low | Low | Low |
| Slavin | 1991 | n/a | None Specified | 1984 | 1989 | Primary/Elementary School (K-3) |
|
|
High | High | High | High | Low | High | High |
| Slavin | 2009 | Include: a design with a control group; random assignment | None Specified | 1971 | 2007 | School-age_Middle School, School-age_High School |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | High | Low | High | High |
| Paik | 1994 | none | None Specified | NA | NA | Children; Adolescents |
|
|
Unclear | High | Unclear | High | High | Low | High |
| Cushing | 2010 | Include: All quantitative designs; Experimental | None Specified | 1989 | 2009 | children, adolescents |
|
|
Unclear | Low | High | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Liao | 2008 | Include: All quantitative designs | Taiwan | 1990 | 2003 | School-age_Primary/Elementary School |
|
|
Low | High | High | Low | High | High | High |
| Cheung | 2013 | Include: Experimental; quasi-experimental | None Specified | 1980 | 2010 | School-age_general |
|
|
Low | High | High | Unclear | Low | Low | Low |
| Abrami | 2015 | Include: Experimental; quasi-experimental | None Specified | 2009 | 2015 | School-age_Early Primary/Elementary School (K-3) |
|
|
High | High | Low | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Bayraktar | 2001 | Include: Experimental; quasi-experimental | North America_USA | 1970 | 1999 | School-age_High School |
|
|
Unclear | High | High | Unclear | High | Low | Low |
| Chan | 2014 | Include: Experimental; quasi-experimental | None specified | 2002 | 2012 | School-age_general |
|
|
Unclear | High | High | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Cheung | 2013 |
Include: pretest–posttest with control group (non-randomised); pretest–posttest with control group (randomized at individual level); pretest–posttest with nonequivalent control group (randomized at group level) Exclude: one group pretest–posttest; one group posttest only design |
None Specified | 1985 | 2011 | School-age_Primary/Elementary School |
|
|
Low | Unclear | Low | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Grabe | 2008 | Include: Experimental; correlational | English-speaking countries | 1996 | 2006 |
adolescents (7.5—17.4) |
|
|
Low | Low | High | High | Low | High | Low |
| Graham | 2015 | Include: Experimental; quasi-experimental | None Specified | 2004 | 2011 | School-age_Primary/Elementary School; School-age_Middle School |
|
|
Unclear | Low | High | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Li | 2010 | Include: Experimental; quasi-experimental | None Specified | 1991 | 2005 | School-age_general |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | Unclear | Low | High | Low |
| Schroeder | 2013 | Include: Experimental; quasi-experimental | All | 2001 | 2009 | All |
|
|
Low | Low | Unclear | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Slavin | 2008 |
Include: RCT_general; quasi-experimental Exclude: Cohort |
None Specified | 1983 | 2006 | School-age_Primary/Elementary School |
|
|
Unclear | Unclear | High | High | Low | High | High |
| Slavin | 2014 | Include: RCT_general; quasi-experimental | All | 2000 | 2011 | School-age_Primary/Elementary School |
|
|
Unclear | High | High | High | Low | High | High |
| Cox | 2012 | None | All | 1994 | 2010 |
Early childhood/pre-school (3.2—5.3) |
|
|
High | Low | High | High | Low | High | Low |
| Hurwitz | 2018 | None | North America_USA | 1997 | 2018 | Early childhood/pre-school, School-age_Early Primary/Elementary School (K-3) |
|
|
Low | Low | High | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Ghobadi | 2018 |
Include: cohort; case-control; cross-sectional Exclude: interventions |
None Specified | 2009 | 2014 | Children, Adolescents |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | Unclear | Low | Low | Low |
| Ameryoun | 2018 | Include: RCT_general | None Specified | 2007 | 2017 |
Children, Adolescents (9.3—16.0) |
|
|
Low | Low | Unclear | Unclear | Low | Low | Low |
| Stavrinos | 2018 |
Include: behavioural research Exclude: population-based epidemiology |
None Specified | 2007 | 2015 |
All (9.1—18.0) |
|
|
Unclear | High | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Darling | 2017 | Include: intervention | None specified | 2006 | 2016 |
NA (8.7—16.0) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Unclear | Unclear | Low | High | High |
| Chen | 2017 | None | None specified | 2004 | 2015 | All |
|
|
Unclear | Low | High | High | High | High | Low |
| Ozdemir | 2018 | Include: Experimental | None Specified | 2007 | 2017 | Children; Adolescents |
|
|
Unclear | High | Unclear | High | High | High | Low |
| Coyne | 2018 | None | None Specified | 1975 | 2017 | Children, adolescents |
|
|
Low | Low | Low | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Byun | 2018 | Include: All quantitative designs | None Specified | 2006 | 2014 | School-age_general (K-12) |
|
|
Unclear | Unclear | Unclear | High | High | High | High |
| Van ’t Riet | 2014 | Include: Experimental | None Specified | 2008 | 2013 | Children, Adolescents |
|
|
Unclear | High | Unclear | Low | Low | High | Low |
| Tekedere | 2016 | None | All | 2010 | 2015 | All |
|
|
Unclear | High | Unclear | Unclear | Low | Low | Low |
| Tamim | 2011 | None | All | 1995 | 2007 | School-age_general |
|
|
Unclear | High | High | Low | High | Low | Low |
| Shahab | 2009 | Include: RCT_general | None Specified | 2006 | 2006 | All |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Unclear | Unclear | Low | Low | Low |
| Ryan | 1991 | Include: Experimental; quasi-experimental | None Specified | 1984 | 1989 | School-age_Primary/Elementary School |
|
|
Unclear | Low | High | High | Low | High | High |
| Prizant-Passal | 2016 | Include: All quantiative designs | None Specified | 2005 | 2013 |
All (12.7—16.3) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Unclear | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Moran | 2008 | Include: Experimental; quasi-experimental | None Specified | 1988 | 2005 | School-age_Middle School |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Unclear | High | Low | High | Low |
| Liao | 1992 | None | None Specified | 1968 | 1988 | All |
|
|
Unclear | High | Unclear | High | High | High | High |
| Cheung | 2012 | Include: RCT_general | None Specified | 1982 | 2010 | School-age_general |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | High | High | Low | Low |
| Blok | 2002 | None | None Specified | 1990 | 2000 |
All (5.4—11.5) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | High | High | Low | High | Low |
| Adelantado-Renau | 2019 | Cross-sectional studies | None specified | 1982 | 2019 |
Children, Adolescents (4-18) or primary, elementary or secondary school students (5.7—18.0) |
|
|
Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Aghasi | 2020 | Include: observational design | None specified | 2007 | 2016 |
None specified (14.2—15.8) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | Unclear | Low | Low | Low |
| Andrade | 2019 | Include: interventions (allocated to group and compared with postintervention or control groups) | None specified | 2010 | 2017 | Children, Adolescents (up to 19) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | Unclear | Low | High | Low |
| Huang | 2020 | Include: empirical (including lab experiment and quasi-experiment) and cross-sectional (including longitudial) studies | Include: All | 1995 | 2017 |
Include: All (5.3—17.3) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | High | High | Low | Low | High |
| Janssen | 2020 | Include: cross-sectional, longitudinal or experimental studies | None specified | 2007 | 2019 | Include: children ages birth to 59 months at basline." |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | Low | Low | Unclear | Low |
| Kates | 2018 | None specified | None specified | 2008 | 2016 | Include: school-age_general |
|
|
Unclear | High | Low | High | High | Low | Low |
| Madigan | 2020 | Include: observational studies. Exclude: qualitative studies | None specified | 1973 | 2019 |
Childre (<12 yrs) (0.5—10.6) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | Unclear | Low | Low | Low |
| Lanca | 2020 | Include: cohort, case-control, cross-sectional or intervention trials. Exclude: case reports and retrospective studies. | None specified | 2007 | 2016 | Children, Adolescents |
|
|
Unclear | Low | High | Unclear | Low | Low | Low |
| Oldrati | 2020 | Include: group-control experimental design | None specified | 2006 | 2018 | School aged children (6-19) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Unclear | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Oliveira | 2020 | Include: randomised controlled trials and quasi-RCTs. | None specified | 2008 | 2017 |
Children, Adolescents (2-19) (7.5—16.1) |
|
|
Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Poorolajal | 2020 | Include: observational studies | None specified | 1995 | 2018 | Children, Adolescents |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | Unclear | Low | Low | Low |
| Prescott | 2018 | Include: longitudinal designs | All | 2008 | 2017 |
None specified (8.9—16.0) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Unclear | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Russell | 2019 | Include: experimental or nonexperiimenal | All | 2004 | 2018 |
Children, Adolescents (2-18) (4.1—10.4) |
|
|
Low | Low | Low | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Scionti | 2019 | Include: pre post treatment designs and RCTs with at least one control group (either active or passive) | None specifed | 2009 | 2019 |
Children (3-6) (4.3—6.1) |
|
|
Low | Low | Low | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Shin | 2019 | Include: intervention studies (RCTs and pre- and post- control groups) | None specified | 2013 | 2018 |
Adolescents (10-19) (12.0—15.7) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | Low | Low | High | Low |
| Takacs | 2019 | Include: RCT or quasi-experimental design | None specified | 2001 | 2016 | Children <12 years |
|
|
Low | Low | Unclear | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Vahedi | 2018 | Include: interventions using pre-post measures or a control group. Exclude: data from cross-sectional or survey sources | None specified | 2015 | 2016 | Ages 11-19. Beginning middle school and finishing high school. |
|
|
Low | Low | Unclear | Unclear | Low | Low | Low |
| Vannucci | 2020 | Exclude: qualitative studies and descriptive case studies | None specified | 2011 | 2018 |
Adolescents (12-18) (12.6—18.0) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Unclear | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Villegas-Navas | 2020 | Include: interventions with comparison group | None specified | 2004 | 2018 |
Children <12 (7.7—12.0) |
|
|
Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Zhou | 2020 | Exclude: non-empirical studies, ualitative studies and sys reviews or meta-analyses | None specified | 2009 | 2018 | None specified |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Unclear | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Xie | 2018 | Include: experimental, quasi-experimental, pretest-postest | None specified | 2010 | 2018 |
Include: Children (0-5 or mean age under 6) (1.8—5.9) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Aspiranto | 2020 | Include: intervention | None specified | 2013 | 2015 | Include: students |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | High | Low | High | Low |
| Bossen | 2020 | Include: RCTs or controlled clinical trials (CCTs) | None | 2011 | 2018 |
Include: children (10.0—15.7) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | Low | Low | High | Low |
| Champion | 2019 | Include: RCTs | None specified | 2003 | 2017 |
Include students (11-18 years) (11.4—15.9) |
|
|
Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Fang | 2019 | Include: cohort, case-control or cross-sectional designs | None specified | 2006 | 2019 | Include: children (<18 years) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Ferguson | 2019 | None specified | None specified | 1986 | 2016 | Include: children and adolescents |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Unclear | High | High | Low | Low |
| Folkvord | 2018 | Include: intervention studies | None specified | 2007 | 2018 | Include: 17 years or younger |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | Unclear | Low | High | Low |
| Hassan-Saleh | 2019 | Include: Experimental or Quasi-experimental | None specified | 2008 | 2016 | Include: children and adolescents (7-17 years) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Unclear | Unclear | High | High | Low |
| Hurwitz | 2019 | None specified | None specified | 1997 | 2018 | Include: children (aged 2-8 years) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Unclear | Unclear | Low | Low | Low |
| Kucukalkan | 2019 | Include: experimental studies | None specified | 2007 | 2016 | Include: elementary and primary aged students between 1st and 8th grade |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Unclear | Unclear | High | Low | Low |
| Larwin | 2019 | Include: interventions (single-case designs) | None specified | 2012 | 2015 | Include: students attending a public, private, or charter K-12 school |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Low | Low | Low | High | Low |
| Liu | 2019 | Include: quantitative | None specified | 2007 | 2014 |
None specified (13.3—16.6) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Unclear | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Martins | 2019 | Include: quantitative studies | None specified | 2003 | 2018 | None specified |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Unclear | High | Low | Low | Low |
| McArthur | 2018 | Studies that allocated participants using random allocation, quasi-random allocation, or minimisation. | English speaking countries | NA | 2015 | Include: children and adolescents |
|
|
Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| deRibera | 2019 | Include: cross-sectional, longitudinal, or case-control designs | Include: low- and middle-incomce countries only | NA | NA | Include: children and adolescents (aged 10-18 years) |
|
|
Low | Low | Unclear | Unclear | Low | Low | Low |
| Hernandez-Jimenez | 2019 | Include: controlled clinical trials (randomised or quasi-randomised) and non-controlled clinical trials. | None specified | 2009 | 2017 | Children and adolescents (<= 18 years old) |
|
|
Unclear | Low | High | Low | Low | Low | Low |
| Scherer | 2019 | Include: experimental or quasi-experimental with at least one control group | None specified | 1973 | 2017 | Include: children or students enrolled in pre-K to 12 |
|
|
Unclear | Low | Unclear | Unclear | Low | Low | Low |
Forest Plots
Education
Figure 2: Forest Plot for Education Outcomes
Health Behaviour
Figure 3: Forest Plot for Health Behaviour Outcomes
Physical Health
Figure 4: Forest Plot for Physical Health Outcomes
Psychology
Figure 5: Forest Plot for Psychology Outcomes
Individual Studies
Currently, individual data has been extracted and cleaned for 123 effect sizes, out of 169 total effects (73%) .
Supplementary Forest Plots
Education
Figure 6: Forest Plot for Education Outcomes
Health Behaviour
Figure 7: Forest Plot for Health Behaviour Outcomes
Physical Health
Figure 8: Forest Plot for Physical Health Outcomes
Psychology
Figure 9: Forest Plot for Psychology Outcomes
Appendix
Assumptions
I made the following assumptions which may or may not be reasonable:
- That \(\beta\) is equivilent to \(r\) for \(\beta < |.5|\) and undefined otherwise (never the case here)
- That, given the large sample sizes involved Hedge’s g and Cohen’s d where essentially equivalent and that sample sizes used to make up these effects were approximately equal in treatment and control groups.
- In the absence of information that could be used to construct a 2x2 contingency table that ORs and Relative Risk Ratios were equivalent and thus Relative Risk Ratios were converted to \(r\) as if they were Odds ratios.
- External to any other information that all forms of SMD, weighted means etc. were equivilent to Cohen’s d.
Project Structure
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## ! Using an auto-discovered, cached token.
## To suppress this message, modify your code or options to clearly consent to
## the use of a cached token.
## See gargle's "Non-interactive auth" vignette for more details:
## <https://gargle.r-lib.org/articles/non-interactive-auth.html>
## i The googledrive package is using a cached token for 'taren.sanders@acu.edu.au'.
The following warnings were noted during the project build:
## # A tibble: 24 x 2
## name warnings
## <chr> <chr>
## 1 export_plots_129713ca Removed 1 rows containing missing values geom_segment.
## 2 export_plots_1475a313 Removed 1 rows containing missing values geom_rich_tex~
## 3 export_plots_215a1c7f Removed 7 rows containing missing values geom_rich_tex~
## 4 export_plots_2a5ffd54 Removed 7 rows containing missing values geom_rich_tex~
## 5 export_plots_32a2145c Removed 2 rows containing missing values geom_rich_tex~
## 6 export_plots_3a9544fe Removed 7 rows containing missing values geom_rich_tex~
## 7 export_plots_3fd17790 Removed 2 rows containing missing values geom_rich_tex~
## 8 export_plots_56d8a19f Removed 7 rows containing missing values geom_rich_tex~
## 9 export_plots_5ab5c41d Removed 10 rows containing missing values geom_rich_te~
## 10 export_plots_609652b1 Removed 1 rows containing missing values geom_segment.
## # ... with 14 more rows